From andi@fred.muc.de Thu Apr 29 15:00:23 1999 Return-Path: Received: from lacrosse.redhat.com (root@lacrosse.redhat.com [207.175.42.154]) by devserv.devel.redhat.com (8.8.7/8.8.7) with ESMTP id PAA13690 for ; Thu, 29 Apr 1999 15:00:21 -0400 Received: from mail.redhat.com (mail.redhat.com [199.183.24.239]) by lacrosse.redhat.com (8.8.7/8.8.7) with ESMTP id PAA01811 for ; Thu, 29 Apr 1999 15:00:17 -0400 Received: from fred.muc.de (noidentity@ns2049.munich.netsurf.de [195.180.232.49]) by mail.redhat.com (8.8.7/8.8.7) with SMTP id OAA26840 for ; Thu, 29 Apr 1999 14:59:33 -0400 Received: (qmail 421 invoked by uid 500); 30 Apr 1999 03:00:54 -0000 Message-ID: <19990430050054.45055@fred.muc.de> Date: Fri, 30 Apr 1999 05:00:54 +0200 From: ak@muc.de To: alan@redhat.com Subject: Advanced Routing docs Mime-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/mixed; boundary=+HP7ph2BbKc20aGI X-Mailer: Mutt 0.89.1i Status: RO --+HP7ph2BbKc20aGI Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii I attached advanced-routing.tex and a useful paper from Werner about the queueing disciplines. -Andi --+HP7ph2BbKc20aGI Content-Type: application/x-tex Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="advanced-routing.tex" \documentclass[12pt,a4paper]{article} \usepackage{} \textwidth=16cm \hoffset=-1cm \sloppy \begin{document} \title{Advanced routing mini-HOWTO} \author{Timur~A.~Bolokhov, timur@tepkom.ru} \maketitle This document describes new routing features of 2.1.X development and coming 2.2.X stable linux kernels. Among them are source--based routing and Network Address Translation (NAT). \section{Introduction} Somewhere in the middle of 2.1 development kernel series routing code was rewriten by Alexey Kuznetsov (kuznet@ms2.inr.ac.ru), many new features like policy(source)--based routing, Network Address Translation, scheduling etc were added. Networking is now managed by means of \verb|ip|, \verb|tc| and \verb|rtmon| utilities from \verb|iproute2| package. I hope this document will help novices to enter new conception. \subsection{Regrets} This document is written by a USER, even some basic notions can be incorrect. The \verb|ip| utility is very powerfull, as you can see by its syntax in appendix, only a little part of its possibilities is described. Hope that you can guess the rest. No word is said about cooperation with \verb|tc| and about \verb|tc| itself. No picture yet. Bad language, punctuation, general mistakes. \subsection{Preliminary reading} Suppose that you already have some experince with linux routing, or at least just studied NET-3 HOWTO, IP-Alias, IP-Subnetworking, IP-Masquerading, Proxy-Arp minis. Kernel-HOWTO will help you to compile new-featured kernel. \subsection{Where to find them} \begin{itemize} \item The \verb|iproute2| package is available in {\tt ftp://ftp.inr.ac.ru/ip-routing/} There is a mirror(s), but I couldnot even resolve it in DNS. May be the situation will change? \item Howtos are as usual in \verb|/usr/doc/| or in the nearest mirror of {\tt sunsite.unc.edu}. \item Utility \verb|ipchains| is homed in {\tt http://www.adelaide.net.au/rustcorp/ipfwchains}. \item This document: hope that current version will be somewhere under {\tt ftp://post.tepkom.ru/pub/Linux/} \end{itemize} \subsection{Convention} Value standing in square brackets [ ] is just an option to smth. \section{Software} Author of this document is using 2.1.121 kernel with \verb|glibc-2.0.7|, \verb|iproute2-ss980827| along with \verb|gated-3.5.9|. Also \verb|iproute2-glibc2-patch??| was applied. This combination experienced only a week uptime, I couldnot test it longer. %Once it was %3C905B who completely hang the router, second it was an administrator %who decided that black screen is rather a hanging router than a screensaver. \section{How it was before} I'll try to remind you in brief routing conception from 2.0.X series kernels. When IP packet hits router's interface kernel, at first, applies to it rules from input firewall chain. Then if packet survives and in case that forwarding is enabled (\verb|/proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward| is nonzero) it is being passed to another interface according to the routing table and forward firewall chain. Or just finish its way if its destination is one of the routers' interfaces. Normally routing table contain description of paths to all possible IP destinations. The latest are gathered in groups --- networks, each of them is uniquelly described by network adress (the first address in the group) and netmask (masklengh), which characterizes the number of adresses in the group ($ 2^{32 - {\rm masklen}}$ is the right number). Routing table has two main columns: \begin{verbatim} DESTINATION: HOWTO_REACH_IT \end{verbatim} Indeed, look at the example: \begin{verbatim} router># route -n Kernel IP routing table Destination Gateway Genmask Flags Metric Ref Use Iface 192.168.1.32 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.224 U 0 0 12 eth1:1 192.168.0.0 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.0 U 0 0 34 eth0 192.168.2.0 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.0 U 0 0 3 eth1 192.168.3.0 192.168.0.3 255.255.255.0 UG 1 0 8 eth0 127.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 U 0 0 1 lo 0.0.0.0 192.168.0.4 0.0.0.0 UG 1 0 3 eth0 \end{verbatim} We have two network devices, three interfaces (without loopback) --- {\bf eth0}, {\bf eth1} and an alias {\bf eth1:1}, three networks connected directly, so we have 0.0.0.0 as gateway, one network connected behind the gateway 192.168.0.3 and a wise router 192.168.0.4 which knows how to forward packets to the rest part of the world. Routing table is scanned by kernel from top to bottom, when destination is found within some network (or there is special "host" entry for it) packet is forwarded to the specified gateway via corresponding interface. Note that networks are sorted strongly in the direction of decreasing of netmask (masklen), so that if a smaller network within a bigger one has its own gateway then it will appear higher in the table and have its chance to be routed correctly. Now I want to remind you how to make such a table. Here is some base syntax: \begin{verbatim} ifconfig DEVICE [ADDRESS] [netmask MASK] [broadcast ADDR] [up,down] route {add,del,flush} [-net,-host] [NETWORK] [netmask MASK] \ >[gw GATEWAY] [dev DEVICE] \end{verbatim} and the real commands: \begin{verbatim} router># ifconfig lo 127.0.0.1 netmask 255.0.0.0 broadcast 127.255.255.255 up router># ifconfig eth0 192.168.0.1 netmask 255.255.255.0 up router># ifconfig eth1 192.168.2.1 up router># ifconfig eth1:1 192.168.1.35 netmask 255.255.255.224 \ > broadcast 192.168.1.63 up router># route add -net 127.0.0.0 dev lo router># route add -net 192.168.0.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 dev eth0 router># route add -net 192.168.2.0 dev eth1 router># route add -net 192.168.3.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 gw 192.168.0.3 router># route add -net 192.168.1.32 netmask 255.255.255.224 dev eth1:1 router># route add default gw 192.168.0.4 \end{verbatim} \section{What it is now} Short description of a new routing mechanisms you can find in \verb|linux/Documentation/Policy-routing.txt|. Below I'll try give it in more detail. Now we have not only one table (string) of correspondencies \begin{verbatim} DESTINATION: HOWTO_REACH_IT \end{verbatim} but a set of such a tables (which are called classes in the document referenced above), each one being applied to the packets satisfying certain conditions. These conditions are set by means of \verb|ip rule| syntaxis of \verb|ip| utility, while routing tables are filled by means of \verb|ip route|. There are three built-in tables (classes): local, main and default. %which exist even before network interfaces are set up. %??? this need investigation Here we can see how they are bound by the rules: \begin{verbatim} router># ip rule 0: from all lookup local 32766: from all lookup main 32767: from all lookup default \end{verbatim} Rules are scanned by the kernel in order of their preferense (the number before semicolon), so in this initial setup for any arrived packet path to destination will be looked up, at first, in table local and if it's not found --- in tables main and default. When an interface has been configured with \verb|ifconfig| (or \verb|ip link| and \verb|ip addr|) host entries of its ip and broadcast addresses appear in the table local. %(this is the right place for them --- they cannot %be reached with no other way). Route to its attached network appears in the table main. All this is done automatically, you should not type no command now. % ANK uses other terminology here. To check up what do we have in table \verb|N| just type \verb|ip route list table N|. Utilities \verb|ifconfig| and \verb|route| from net-tools are still available under 2.1.X, so set up from the previous section can readily be done as above (but without dealing with attached networks). Another variant is to use \verb|ip|: \begin{verbatim} router># ip link set eth0 up router># ip addr add 192.168.0.1/24 broadcast 192.168.0.255 \ > label eth0 dev eth0 router># ip link set eth1 up router># ip addr add 192.168.2.1/24 broadcast 192.168.2.255 \ > label eth1 dev eth1 router># ip addr add 192.168.1.35/27 broadcast 192.168.1.63 \ > label eth1:1 dev eth1 router># ip route add 192.168.3.0/24 via 192.168.0.3 table main router># ip route add 0/0 via 192.168.0.4 table main \end{verbatim} Static and default routes from this example may have been also put to any other table which is looked up after table main (with preference greater than 32766). For example: \begin{verbatim} router># ip route add 192.168.3.0/24 via 192.168.0.3 table 1 router># ip route add 0/0 via 192.168.0.4 table 2 router># ip rule add [from 0/0] table 1 pref 32800 router># ip rule add [from 0/0] table 2 pref 32810 \end{verbatim} so that \verb|ip rule| gives: \begin{verbatim} router># ip rule 0: from all lookup local 32766: from all lookup main 32767: from all lookup default 32800: from all lookup 1 32810: from all lookup 2 \end{verbatim} But we won't consider this variant below. So what's the difference of the new routing scheme from the previous one? The main is that ip packets now can be sorted with regards to their source address, TOS field, and may be in the future --- to special marks put on them by external classifier (like \verb|ipchains|). Suppose that we want in our example for the packets [with TOS 0x10 (minimum delay)] coming from 192.168.1.32/27 to be routed thruogh default gateway 192.168.0.5, then we type (after our interfaces are up): \begin{verbatim} router># ip route add 192.168.3.0/24 via 192.168.0.3 table main router># ip route add 0/0 via 192.168.0.5 table 3 router># ip route add 0/0 via 192.168.0.4 table 4 router># ip rule add from 192.168.1.32/27 [tos 0x10] table 3 pref 32900 router># ip rule add from 0/0 table 4 pref 32910 \end{verbatim} Rules now looks like this: \begin{verbatim} router># ip rule 0: from all lookup local 32766: from all lookup main 32767: from all lookup default 32900: from 192.168.1.32/27 [tos 0x10] lookup 3 32910: from all lookup 4 \end{verbatim} Similar setup may be usefull for organizations connected to the net through two or more ISPs via one linux gateway (of course, we shouldn't check here TOS field --- just route packets from network assigned by the second ISP to its gateway or ppp interface). It is even possible to make a script notice a problems in one link and redirect (in combination with NAT) critical outgoing connections to another ISPs link. This won't work for incoming calls as long as you do not change your DNS entries accordingly or have multihomed servers. Here is a syntax for \verb|ipchains| to set the TOS field: \begin{verbatim} ipchains -A input -p PROTO -s SOURCE [port] -d DEST [port] -t 0x01 0x10 \end{verbatim} \section{NATs} You should be extremely careful playing with NAT, even in a network with complex topology, routed by routing protocols or simply connected to other network through more than one router. Translation of a packet's destination address is always done in routing table local. The syntax is the following: \begin{verbatim} ip route add nat WHAT/MASKLEN via WHERE table local \end{verbatim} So to translate all packets coming to 192.168.1.50 in the packets destinned to 192.168.2.25 you type: \begin{verbatim} router># ip route add nat 192.168.1.50 via 192.168.2.25 table local \end{verbatim} And to translate whole subnet 192.168.1.40/29 into 192.168.2.48/29 command is \begin{verbatim} router># ip route add nat 192.168.1.40/29 via 192.168.2.48 table local \end{verbatim} Translation of source addresses should be set by means of rules: \begin{verbatim} ip rule add from REAL_SOURCE/MASKLEN nat PSEUDO_SOURCE table TABLEID \end{verbatim} According to the routing conception ip packets comimg from {\tt REAL\_SOURCE} will translate their source addresses to {\tt PSEUDO\_SOURCE} and routed according to the table {\tt TABLEID}. The translation will be valid only for the packets whos destination is in this table. Let's illustrate it. Suppose that in our example 192.168.2.0/24 is an address space from ISP with gateway 192.168.0.4 and 192.168.1.32/27 is from ISP with gateway 192.168.0.5. We suddenly want to relink hosts in subnetwork 192.168.2.48/29 to another ISP. We have wisely reserved a spare subnet 192.168.1.40/29 for this. But we want no translation when 192.168.2.48/29 comes to local nets, especially to 192.168.1.0. Next commands provide our needs: \begin{verbatim} router># ip route add nat 192.168.1.40/29 via 192.168.2.48 table local router># ip rule add from 192.168.2.48/29 nat 192.168.1.40 table 3 pref 32820 \end{verbatim} (Remind that table 3 contains default gw 192.168.0.5). Our setup now is: \begin{verbatim} router># ip rule 0: from all lookup local 32766: from all lookup main 32767: from all lookup default 32820: from 192.168.2.48/29 nat 192.168.1.40 lookup 3 32900: from 192.168.1.32/27 lookup 3 32910: from all lookup 4 \end{verbatim} Want the same translation when going to 192.168.1.0 too? Ok, just type \begin{verbatim} router># ip rule add from 192.168.2.48/29 nat 192.168.1.40 table 5 router># ip rule add 192.168.1.0/24 via 192.168.0.3 table 5 \end{verbatim} Then you'll get \begin{verbatim} router># ip rule 0: from all lookup local 32765: from 192.168.2.48/29 nat 192.168.1.40 lookup 5 32766: from all lookup main 32767: from all lookup default 32820: from 192.168.2.48/29 nat 192.168.1.40 lookup 3 32900: from 192.168.1.32/27 lookup 3 32910: from all lookup 4 \end{verbatim} Note that you should allways think of where your rule appears in the list, i.e. control its preference. Otherwise result may be very confusing. Guess why we couldnot just put the route to 192.168.1.0/24 into table 3 with \begin{verbatim} router># ip rule add 192.168.1.0/24 via 192.168.0.3 table 5 \end{verbatim} instead of last two \verb|ip rule add ...| and \verb|ip route add ...|? Hope that those imaginary examples will help to organize your real system. \section*{Appendix} %\begin{appendix} %\appendixname{Appendix} Full syntax of \verb|ip| utility is gathered here \subsection*{ip} \begin{verbatim} Usage: ip [ OPTIONS ] OBJECT { COMMAND | help } where OBJECT := { link | addr | route | rule | neigh | tunnel } OPTIONS := { -s[tatistics] | -f[amily] { inet | inet6 }} \end{verbatim} \subsection*{ip link} \begin{verbatim} Usage: ip link set DEVICE { up | down | arp { on | off } | multicast { on | off } | txqueuelen PACKETS | name NEWNAME } ip link show [ DEVICE ] \end{verbatim} \subsection*{ip addr} \begin{verbatim} Usage: ip addr [ add | del ] IFADDR dev STRING ip addr show [ dev STRING ] [ ipv4 | ipv6 | link | all ] [txqueuelen] IFADDR := PREFIX [ local ADDR ] [ broadcast ADDR ] [ anycast ADDR ] [ label STRING ] [ scope SCOPE ] SCOPE := [ host | link | global | NUMBER ] \end{verbatim} \subsection*{ip route} \begin{verbatim} Usage: ip route list SELECTOR ip route { change | del | add | append | replace | monitor } ROUTE SELECTOR := [ root PREFIX ] [ match PREFIX ] [ exact PREFIX ] [ table TABLE_ID ] [ proto RTPROTO ] [ type TYPE ] [ scope SCOPE ] ROUTE := NODE_SPEC [ INFO_SPEC ] NODE_SPEC := [ TYPE ] PREFIX [ tos TOS ] [ table TABLE_ID ] [ proto RTPROTO ] [ type TYPE ] [ scope SCOPE ] INFO_SPEC := NH OPTIONS FLAGS [ nexthop NH ]... NH := [ via ADDRESS ] [ dev STRING ] [ weight NUMBER ] NHFLAGS OPTIONS := FLAGS [ mtu NUMBER ] [ rtt NUMBER ] [ window NUMBER ] [ flowid CLASSID ] TYPE := [ unicast | local | broadcast | multicast | throw | unreachable | prohibit | blackhole | nat ] TABLE_ID := [ local | main | default | all | NUMBER ] SCOPE := [ host | link | global | NUMBER ] NHFLAGS := [ onlink | pervasive ] RTPROTO := [ kernel | boot | static | NUMBER ] \end{verbatim} \subsection*{ip rule} \begin{verbatim} Usage: ip rule [ list | add | del ] SELECTOR ACTION SELECTOR := [ from PREFIX ] [ to PREFIX ] [ tos TOS ] [ dev STRING ] [ pref NUMBER ] ACTION := [ table TABLE_ID ] [ nat ADDRESS ] [ prohibit | reject | unreachable ] [ flowid CLASSID ] TABLE_ID := [ local | main | default | new | NUMBER ] \end{verbatim} \subsection*{ip neigh} \begin{verbatim} Usage: ip neigh { add | del } { ADDR [ lladdr LLADDR ] [ nud { permanent | noarp | stale | reachable } ] | proxy ADDR } [ dev DEVICE ] ip neigh show [ ipv4 | ipv6 | all ] \end{verbatim} \subsection*{ip tunnel} \begin{verbatim} Usage: ip tunnel { add | change | del | show } [ NAME ] [ mode { ipip | gre | sit } ] [ remote ADDR ] [ local ADDR ] [ [i|o]seq ] [ [i|o]key KEY ] [ [i|o]csum ] [ ttl TTL ] [ tos TOS ] [ nopmtudisc ] [ dev PHYS_DEV ] Where: NAME := STRING ADDR := { IP_ADDRESS | any } TOS := { NUMBER | inherit } TTL := { 1..255 | inherit } KEY := { DOTTED_QUAD | NUMBER } \end{verbatim} %\end{appendix} \end{document} --+HP7ph2BbKc20aGI Content-Type: application/postscript Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="tcio-current.ps" %!PS-Adobe-2.0 %%Creator: dvips(k) 5.78 Copyright 1998 Radical Eye Software (www.radicaleye.com) %%Title: tc.dvi %%Pages: 12 %%PageOrder: Ascend %%BoundingBox: 0 0 596 842 %%EndComments %DVIPSCommandLine: dvips -o tc.ps tc.dvi %DVIPSParameters: dpi=600, compressed %DVIPSSource: TeX output 1998.11.30:1445 %%BeginProcSet: texc.pro %! 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scf sf 600 1650 m gs 1 -1 sc (Intserv node) col0 sh gr /Times-Bold ff 180.00 scf sf 600 3975 m gs 1 -1 sc (traffic) col0 sh gr /Times-Bold ff 180.00 scf sf 600 3750 m gs 1 -1 sc (Diffserv) col0 sh gr /Times-Bold ff 180.00 scf sf 600 4200 m gs 1 -1 sc (conditioner) col0 sh gr /Times-Bold ff 180.00 scf sf 600 8025 m gs 1 -1 sc (traffic control) col0 sh gr % Polyline gs clippath 3480 1545 m 3600 1575 l 3480 1605 l 3615 1605 l 3615 1545 l cp clip n 3300 1575 m 3600 1575 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 3480 1545 m 3600 1575 l 3480 1605 l 3480 1575 l 3480 1545 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 3480 1695 m 3600 1725 l 3480 1755 l 3615 1755 l 3615 1695 l cp clip n 3300 1725 m 3600 1725 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 3480 1695 m 3600 1725 l 3480 1755 l 3480 1725 l 3480 1695 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 3480 1395 m 3600 1425 l 3480 1455 l 3615 1455 l 3615 1395 l cp clip n 3300 1425 m 3600 1425 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 3480 1395 m 3600 1425 l 3480 1455 l 3480 1425 l 3480 1395 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 2280 3870 m 2400 3900 l 2280 3930 l 2415 3930 l 2415 3870 l cp clip n 2100 3900 m 2400 3900 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 2280 3870 m 2400 3900 l 2280 3930 l 2280 3900 l 2280 3870 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 3480 3045 m 3600 3075 l 3480 3105 l 3615 3105 l 3615 3045 l cp clip n 2700 3675 m 2700 3075 l 3600 3075 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 3480 3045 m 3600 3075 l 3480 3105 l 3480 3075 l 3480 3045 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5805 5445 m 5925 5475 l 5805 5505 l 5940 5505 l 5940 5445 l cp clip n 3300 5475 m 5925 5475 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5805 5445 m 5925 5475 l 5805 5505 l 5805 5475 l 5805 5445 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5880 5595 m 6000 5625 l 5880 5655 l 6015 5655 l 6015 5595 l cp clip n 3300 5625 m 6000 5625 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5880 5595 m 6000 5625 l 5880 5655 l 5880 5625 l 5880 5595 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5730 5295 m 5850 5325 l 5730 5355 l 5865 5355 l 5865 5295 l cp clip n 3300 5325 m 5850 5325 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5730 5295 m 5850 5325 l 5730 5355 l 5730 5325 l 5730 5295 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5880 1545 m 6000 1575 l 5880 1605 l 6015 1605 l 6015 1545 l cp clip n 4500 1575 m 6000 1575 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5880 1545 m 6000 1575 l 5880 1605 l 5880 1575 l 5880 1545 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 7080 1545 m 7200 1575 l 7080 1605 l 7215 1605 l 7215 1545 l cp clip n 6900 1575 m 7200 1575 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 7080 1545 m 7200 1575 l 7080 1605 l 7080 1575 l 7080 1545 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5880 1395 m 6000 1425 l 5880 1455 l 6015 1455 l 6015 1395 l cp clip n 4500 1425 m 6000 1425 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5880 1395 m 6000 1425 l 5880 1455 l 5880 1425 l 5880 1395 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s 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Ff(\(w)n(ork)e(in)h(progress\),)109 b(In)n(ternet)95 b(Draft)15 3255 y Fe(draft-)t(ietf-)t(diffse)o(rv-)s (ar)o(ch-)s(02.)o(tx)o(t)p Ff(,)176 b(Octo-)15 3355 y(b)r(er)28 b(1998.)-114 3521 y([9])41 b(RF)n(C2170;)72 b(Almesb)r(erger,)66 b(W)-7 b(erner;)73 b(Le)59 b(Boudec,)15 3620 y(Jean-Yv)n(es;)45 b(Oec)n(hslin,)d(Philipp)r(e.)e Fc(Applic)l(ation)j(RE-)15 3720 y(Queste)l(d)24 b(IP)h(over)g(A)-6 b(TM)25 b(\(AREQUIP)-6 b(A\))p Ff(,)21 b(IETF,)h(July)15 3820 y(1997.)1884 5649 y(12)p eop %%Trailer end userdict /end-hook known{end-hook}if %%EOF --+HP7ph2BbKc20aGI-- From andi@fred.muc.de Thu Apr 29 15:00:23 1999 Return-Path: Received: from lacrosse.redhat.com (root@lacrosse.redhat.com [207.175.42.154]) by devserv.devel.redhat.com (8.8.7/8.8.7) with ESMTP id PAA13690 for ; Thu, 29 Apr 1999 15:00:21 -0400 Received: from mail.redhat.com (mail.redhat.com [199.183.24.239]) by lacrosse.redhat.com (8.8.7/8.8.7) with ESMTP id PAA01811 for ; Thu, 29 Apr 1999 15:00:17 -0400 Received: from fred.muc.de (noidentity@ns2049.munich.netsurf.de [195.180.232.49]) by mail.redhat.com (8.8.7/8.8.7) with SMTP id OAA26840 for ; Thu, 29 Apr 1999 14:59:33 -0400 Received: (qmail 421 invoked by uid 500); 30 Apr 1999 03:00:54 -0000 Message-ID: <19990430050054.45055@fred.muc.de> Date: Fri, 30 Apr 1999 05:00:54 +0200 From: ak@muc.de To: alan@redhat.com Subject: Advanced Routing docs Mime-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/mixed; boundary=+HP7ph2BbKc20aGI X-Mailer: Mutt 0.89.1i Status: RO --+HP7ph2BbKc20aGI Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii I attached advanced-routing.tex and a useful paper from Werner about the queueing disciplines. -Andi --+HP7ph2BbKc20aGI Content-Type: application/x-tex Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="advanced-routing.tex" \documentclass[12pt,a4paper]{article} \usepackage{} \textwidth=16cm \hoffset=-1cm \sloppy \begin{document} \title{Advanced routing mini-HOWTO} \author{Timur~A.~Bolokhov, timur@tepkom.ru} \maketitle This document describes new routing features of 2.1.X development and coming 2.2.X stable linux kernels. Among them are source--based routing and Network Address Translation (NAT). \section{Introduction} Somewhere in the middle of 2.1 development kernel series routing code was rewriten by Alexey Kuznetsov (kuznet@ms2.inr.ac.ru), many new features like policy(source)--based routing, Network Address Translation, scheduling etc were added. Networking is now managed by means of \verb|ip|, \verb|tc| and \verb|rtmon| utilities from \verb|iproute2| package. I hope this document will help novices to enter new conception. \subsection{Regrets} This document is written by a USER, even some basic notions can be incorrect. The \verb|ip| utility is very powerfull, as you can see by its syntax in appendix, only a little part of its possibilities is described. Hope that you can guess the rest. No word is said about cooperation with \verb|tc| and about \verb|tc| itself. No picture yet. Bad language, punctuation, general mistakes. \subsection{Preliminary reading} Suppose that you already have some experince with linux routing, or at least just studied NET-3 HOWTO, IP-Alias, IP-Subnetworking, IP-Masquerading, Proxy-Arp minis. Kernel-HOWTO will help you to compile new-featured kernel. \subsection{Where to find them} \begin{itemize} \item The \verb|iproute2| package is available in {\tt ftp://ftp.inr.ac.ru/ip-routing/} There is a mirror(s), but I couldnot even resolve it in DNS. May be the situation will change? \item Howtos are as usual in \verb|/usr/doc/| or in the nearest mirror of {\tt sunsite.unc.edu}. \item Utility \verb|ipchains| is homed in {\tt http://www.adelaide.net.au/rustcorp/ipfwchains}. \item This document: hope that current version will be somewhere under {\tt ftp://post.tepkom.ru/pub/Linux/} \end{itemize} \subsection{Convention} Value standing in square brackets [ ] is just an option to smth. \section{Software} Author of this document is using 2.1.121 kernel with \verb|glibc-2.0.7|, \verb|iproute2-ss980827| along with \verb|gated-3.5.9|. Also \verb|iproute2-glibc2-patch??| was applied. This combination experienced only a week uptime, I couldnot test it longer. %Once it was %3C905B who completely hang the router, second it was an administrator %who decided that black screen is rather a hanging router than a screensaver. \section{How it was before} I'll try to remind you in brief routing conception from 2.0.X series kernels. When IP packet hits router's interface kernel, at first, applies to it rules from input firewall chain. Then if packet survives and in case that forwarding is enabled (\verb|/proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward| is nonzero) it is being passed to another interface according to the routing table and forward firewall chain. Or just finish its way if its destination is one of the routers' interfaces. Normally routing table contain description of paths to all possible IP destinations. The latest are gathered in groups --- networks, each of them is uniquelly described by network adress (the first address in the group) and netmask (masklengh), which characterizes the number of adresses in the group ($ 2^{32 - {\rm masklen}}$ is the right number). Routing table has two main columns: \begin{verbatim} DESTINATION: HOWTO_REACH_IT \end{verbatim} Indeed, look at the example: \begin{verbatim} router># route -n Kernel IP routing table Destination Gateway Genmask Flags Metric Ref Use Iface 192.168.1.32 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.224 U 0 0 12 eth1:1 192.168.0.0 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.0 U 0 0 34 eth0 192.168.2.0 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.0 U 0 0 3 eth1 192.168.3.0 192.168.0.3 255.255.255.0 UG 1 0 8 eth0 127.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 U 0 0 1 lo 0.0.0.0 192.168.0.4 0.0.0.0 UG 1 0 3 eth0 \end{verbatim} We have two network devices, three interfaces (without loopback) --- {\bf eth0}, {\bf eth1} and an alias {\bf eth1:1}, three networks connected directly, so we have 0.0.0.0 as gateway, one network connected behind the gateway 192.168.0.3 and a wise router 192.168.0.4 which knows how to forward packets to the rest part of the world. Routing table is scanned by kernel from top to bottom, when destination is found within some network (or there is special "host" entry for it) packet is forwarded to the specified gateway via corresponding interface. Note that networks are sorted strongly in the direction of decreasing of netmask (masklen), so that if a smaller network within a bigger one has its own gateway then it will appear higher in the table and have its chance to be routed correctly. Now I want to remind you how to make such a table. Here is some base syntax: \begin{verbatim} ifconfig DEVICE [ADDRESS] [netmask MASK] [broadcast ADDR] [up,down] route {add,del,flush} [-net,-host] [NETWORK] [netmask MASK] \ >[gw GATEWAY] [dev DEVICE] \end{verbatim} and the real commands: \begin{verbatim} router># ifconfig lo 127.0.0.1 netmask 255.0.0.0 broadcast 127.255.255.255 up router># ifconfig eth0 192.168.0.1 netmask 255.255.255.0 up router># ifconfig eth1 192.168.2.1 up router># ifconfig eth1:1 192.168.1.35 netmask 255.255.255.224 \ > broadcast 192.168.1.63 up router># route add -net 127.0.0.0 dev lo router># route add -net 192.168.0.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 dev eth0 router># route add -net 192.168.2.0 dev eth1 router># route add -net 192.168.3.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 gw 192.168.0.3 router># route add -net 192.168.1.32 netmask 255.255.255.224 dev eth1:1 router># route add default gw 192.168.0.4 \end{verbatim} \section{What it is now} Short description of a new routing mechanisms you can find in \verb|linux/Documentation/Policy-routing.txt|. Below I'll try give it in more detail. Now we have not only one table (string) of correspondencies \begin{verbatim} DESTINATION: HOWTO_REACH_IT \end{verbatim} but a set of such a tables (which are called classes in the document referenced above), each one being applied to the packets satisfying certain conditions. These conditions are set by means of \verb|ip rule| syntaxis of \verb|ip| utility, while routing tables are filled by means of \verb|ip route|. There are three built-in tables (classes): local, main and default. %which exist even before network interfaces are set up. %??? this need investigation Here we can see how they are bound by the rules: \begin{verbatim} router># ip rule 0: from all lookup local 32766: from all lookup main 32767: from all lookup default \end{verbatim} Rules are scanned by the kernel in order of their preferense (the number before semicolon), so in this initial setup for any arrived packet path to destination will be looked up, at first, in table local and if it's not found --- in tables main and default. When an interface has been configured with \verb|ifconfig| (or \verb|ip link| and \verb|ip addr|) host entries of its ip and broadcast addresses appear in the table local. %(this is the right place for them --- they cannot %be reached with no other way). Route to its attached network appears in the table main. All this is done automatically, you should not type no command now. % ANK uses other terminology here. To check up what do we have in table \verb|N| just type \verb|ip route list table N|. Utilities \verb|ifconfig| and \verb|route| from net-tools are still available under 2.1.X, so set up from the previous section can readily be done as above (but without dealing with attached networks). Another variant is to use \verb|ip|: \begin{verbatim} router># ip link set eth0 up router># ip addr add 192.168.0.1/24 broadcast 192.168.0.255 \ > label eth0 dev eth0 router># ip link set eth1 up router># ip addr add 192.168.2.1/24 broadcast 192.168.2.255 \ > label eth1 dev eth1 router># ip addr add 192.168.1.35/27 broadcast 192.168.1.63 \ > label eth1:1 dev eth1 router># ip route add 192.168.3.0/24 via 192.168.0.3 table main router># ip route add 0/0 via 192.168.0.4 table main \end{verbatim} Static and default routes from this example may have been also put to any other table which is looked up after table main (with preference greater than 32766). For example: \begin{verbatim} router># ip route add 192.168.3.0/24 via 192.168.0.3 table 1 router># ip route add 0/0 via 192.168.0.4 table 2 router># ip rule add [from 0/0] table 1 pref 32800 router># ip rule add [from 0/0] table 2 pref 32810 \end{verbatim} so that \verb|ip rule| gives: \begin{verbatim} router># ip rule 0: from all lookup local 32766: from all lookup main 32767: from all lookup default 32800: from all lookup 1 32810: from all lookup 2 \end{verbatim} But we won't consider this variant below. So what's the difference of the new routing scheme from the previous one? The main is that ip packets now can be sorted with regards to their source address, TOS field, and may be in the future --- to special marks put on them by external classifier (like \verb|ipchains|). Suppose that we want in our example for the packets [with TOS 0x10 (minimum delay)] coming from 192.168.1.32/27 to be routed thruogh default gateway 192.168.0.5, then we type (after our interfaces are up): \begin{verbatim} router># ip route add 192.168.3.0/24 via 192.168.0.3 table main router># ip route add 0/0 via 192.168.0.5 table 3 router># ip route add 0/0 via 192.168.0.4 table 4 router># ip rule add from 192.168.1.32/27 [tos 0x10] table 3 pref 32900 router># ip rule add from 0/0 table 4 pref 32910 \end{verbatim} Rules now looks like this: \begin{verbatim} router># ip rule 0: from all lookup local 32766: from all lookup main 32767: from all lookup default 32900: from 192.168.1.32/27 [tos 0x10] lookup 3 32910: from all lookup 4 \end{verbatim} Similar setup may be usefull for organizations connected to the net through two or more ISPs via one linux gateway (of course, we shouldn't check here TOS field --- just route packets from network assigned by the second ISP to its gateway or ppp interface). It is even possible to make a script notice a problems in one link and redirect (in combination with NAT) critical outgoing connections to another ISPs link. This won't work for incoming calls as long as you do not change your DNS entries accordingly or have multihomed servers. Here is a syntax for \verb|ipchains| to set the TOS field: \begin{verbatim} ipchains -A input -p PROTO -s SOURCE [port] -d DEST [port] -t 0x01 0x10 \end{verbatim} \section{NATs} You should be extremely careful playing with NAT, even in a network with complex topology, routed by routing protocols or simply connected to other network through more than one router. Translation of a packet's destination address is always done in routing table local. The syntax is the following: \begin{verbatim} ip route add nat WHAT/MASKLEN via WHERE table local \end{verbatim} So to translate all packets coming to 192.168.1.50 in the packets destinned to 192.168.2.25 you type: \begin{verbatim} router># ip route add nat 192.168.1.50 via 192.168.2.25 table local \end{verbatim} And to translate whole subnet 192.168.1.40/29 into 192.168.2.48/29 command is \begin{verbatim} router># ip route add nat 192.168.1.40/29 via 192.168.2.48 table local \end{verbatim} Translation of source addresses should be set by means of rules: \begin{verbatim} ip rule add from REAL_SOURCE/MASKLEN nat PSEUDO_SOURCE table TABLEID \end{verbatim} According to the routing conception ip packets comimg from {\tt REAL\_SOURCE} will translate their source addresses to {\tt PSEUDO\_SOURCE} and routed according to the table {\tt TABLEID}. The translation will be valid only for the packets whos destination is in this table. Let's illustrate it. Suppose that in our example 192.168.2.0/24 is an address space from ISP with gateway 192.168.0.4 and 192.168.1.32/27 is from ISP with gateway 192.168.0.5. We suddenly want to relink hosts in subnetwork 192.168.2.48/29 to another ISP. We have wisely reserved a spare subnet 192.168.1.40/29 for this. But we want no translation when 192.168.2.48/29 comes to local nets, especially to 192.168.1.0. Next commands provide our needs: \begin{verbatim} router># ip route add nat 192.168.1.40/29 via 192.168.2.48 table local router># ip rule add from 192.168.2.48/29 nat 192.168.1.40 table 3 pref 32820 \end{verbatim} (Remind that table 3 contains default gw 192.168.0.5). Our setup now is: \begin{verbatim} router># ip rule 0: from all lookup local 32766: from all lookup main 32767: from all lookup default 32820: from 192.168.2.48/29 nat 192.168.1.40 lookup 3 32900: from 192.168.1.32/27 lookup 3 32910: from all lookup 4 \end{verbatim} Want the same translation when going to 192.168.1.0 too? Ok, just type \begin{verbatim} router># ip rule add from 192.168.2.48/29 nat 192.168.1.40 table 5 router># ip rule add 192.168.1.0/24 via 192.168.0.3 table 5 \end{verbatim} Then you'll get \begin{verbatim} router># ip rule 0: from all lookup local 32765: from 192.168.2.48/29 nat 192.168.1.40 lookup 5 32766: from all lookup main 32767: from all lookup default 32820: from 192.168.2.48/29 nat 192.168.1.40 lookup 3 32900: from 192.168.1.32/27 lookup 3 32910: from all lookup 4 \end{verbatim} Note that you should allways think of where your rule appears in the list, i.e. control its preference. Otherwise result may be very confusing. Guess why we couldnot just put the route to 192.168.1.0/24 into table 3 with \begin{verbatim} router># ip rule add 192.168.1.0/24 via 192.168.0.3 table 5 \end{verbatim} instead of last two \verb|ip rule add ...| and \verb|ip route add ...|? Hope that those imaginary examples will help to organize your real system. \section*{Appendix} %\begin{appendix} %\appendixname{Appendix} Full syntax of \verb|ip| utility is gathered here \subsection*{ip} \begin{verbatim} Usage: ip [ OPTIONS ] OBJECT { COMMAND | help } where OBJECT := { link | addr | route | rule | neigh | tunnel } OPTIONS := { -s[tatistics] | -f[amily] { inet | inet6 }} \end{verbatim} \subsection*{ip link} \begin{verbatim} Usage: ip link set DEVICE { up | down | arp { on | off } | multicast { on | off } | txqueuelen PACKETS | name NEWNAME } ip link show [ DEVICE ] \end{verbatim} \subsection*{ip addr} \begin{verbatim} Usage: ip addr [ add | del ] IFADDR dev STRING ip addr show [ dev STRING ] [ ipv4 | ipv6 | link | all ] [txqueuelen] IFADDR := PREFIX [ local ADDR ] [ broadcast ADDR ] [ anycast ADDR ] [ label STRING ] [ scope SCOPE ] SCOPE := [ host | link | global | NUMBER ] \end{verbatim} \subsection*{ip route} \begin{verbatim} Usage: ip route list SELECTOR ip route { change | del | add | append | replace | monitor } ROUTE SELECTOR := [ root PREFIX ] [ match PREFIX ] [ exact PREFIX ] [ table TABLE_ID ] [ proto RTPROTO ] [ type TYPE ] [ scope SCOPE ] ROUTE := NODE_SPEC [ INFO_SPEC ] NODE_SPEC := [ TYPE ] PREFIX [ tos TOS ] [ table TABLE_ID ] [ proto RTPROTO ] [ type TYPE ] [ scope SCOPE ] INFO_SPEC := NH OPTIONS FLAGS [ nexthop NH ]... NH := [ via ADDRESS ] [ dev STRING ] [ weight NUMBER ] NHFLAGS OPTIONS := FLAGS [ mtu NUMBER ] [ rtt NUMBER ] [ window NUMBER ] [ flowid CLASSID ] TYPE := [ unicast | local | broadcast | multicast | throw | unreachable | prohibit | blackhole | nat ] TABLE_ID := [ local | main | default | all | NUMBER ] SCOPE := [ host | link | global | NUMBER ] NHFLAGS := [ onlink | pervasive ] RTPROTO := [ kernel | boot | static | NUMBER ] \end{verbatim} \subsection*{ip rule} \begin{verbatim} Usage: ip rule [ list | add | del ] SELECTOR ACTION SELECTOR := [ from PREFIX ] [ to PREFIX ] [ tos TOS ] [ dev STRING ] [ pref NUMBER ] ACTION := [ table TABLE_ID ] [ nat ADDRESS ] [ prohibit | reject | unreachable ] [ flowid CLASSID ] TABLE_ID := [ local | main | default | new | NUMBER ] \end{verbatim} \subsection*{ip neigh} \begin{verbatim} Usage: ip neigh { add | del } { ADDR [ lladdr LLADDR ] [ nud { permanent | noarp | stale | reachable } ] | proxy ADDR } [ dev DEVICE ] ip neigh show [ ipv4 | ipv6 | all ] \end{verbatim} \subsection*{ip tunnel} \begin{verbatim} Usage: ip tunnel { add | change | del | show } [ NAME ] [ mode { ipip | gre | sit } ] [ remote ADDR ] [ local ADDR ] [ [i|o]seq ] [ [i|o]key KEY ] [ [i|o]csum ] [ ttl TTL ] [ tos TOS ] [ nopmtudisc ] [ dev PHYS_DEV ] Where: NAME := STRING ADDR := { IP_ADDRESS | any } TOS := { NUMBER | inherit } TTL := { 1..255 | inherit } KEY := { DOTTED_QUAD | NUMBER } \end{verbatim} %\end{appendix} \end{document} --+HP7ph2BbKc20aGI Content-Type: application/postscript Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="tcio-current.ps" %!PS-Adobe-2.0 %%Creator: dvips(k) 5.78 Copyright 1998 Radical Eye Software (www.radicaleye.com) %%Title: tc.dvi %%Pages: 12 %%PageOrder: Ascend %%BoundingBox: 0 0 596 842 %%EndComments %DVIPSCommandLine: dvips -o tc.ps tc.dvi %DVIPSParameters: dpi=600, compressed %DVIPSSource: TeX output 1998.11.30:1445 %%BeginProcSet: texc.pro %! 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col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 6480 7770 m 6600 7800 l 6480 7830 l 6480 7800 l 6480 7770 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5505 7620 m 5625 7650 l 5505 7680 l 5640 7680 l 5640 7620 l cp clip n 5250 7650 m 5625 7650 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5505 7620 m 5625 7650 l 5505 7680 l 5505 7650 l 5505 7620 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5430 7470 m 5550 7500 l 5430 7530 l 5565 7530 l 5565 7470 l cp clip n 5250 7500 m 5550 7500 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5430 7470 m 5550 7500 l 5430 7530 l 5430 7500 l 5430 7470 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5580 7770 m 5700 7800 l 5580 7830 l 5715 7830 l 5715 7770 l cp clip n 5250 7800 m 5700 7800 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5580 7770 m 5700 7800 l 5580 7830 l 5580 7800 l 5580 7770 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s /Times-Roman ff 180.00 scf sf 6000 7875 m gs 1 -1 sc (Class) dup sw pop 2 div neg 0 rm col0 sh gr % Polyline gs clippath 2880 7620 m 3000 7650 l 2880 7680 l 3015 7680 l 3015 7620 l cp clip n 2700 7650 m 3000 7650 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 2880 7620 m 3000 7650 l 2880 7680 l 2880 7650 l 2880 7620 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 2280 7845 m 2400 7875 l 2280 7905 l 2415 7905 l 2415 7845 l cp clip n 2100 7875 m 2400 7875 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 2280 7845 m 2400 7875 l 2280 7905 l 2280 7875 l 2280 7845 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline n 4425 7500 m 4350 7650 l gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 4350 7350 m 4275 7500 l gs col0 s gr /Times-Roman ff 180.00 scf sf 3300 7650 m gs 1 -1 sc 90.0 rot (Classifier) dup sw pop 2 div neg 0 rm col0 sh gr /Times-Roman ff 180.00 scf sf 4050 7875 m gs 1 -1 sc (Filter) dup sw pop 2 div neg 0 rm col0 sh gr /Times-Roman ff 180.00 scf sf 4800 7875 m gs 1 -1 sc (Police) dup sw pop 2 div neg 0 rm col0 sh gr /Times-Bold ff 180.00 scf sf 600 7800 m gs 1 -1 sc (Linux kernel) col0 sh gr /Times-Bold ff 180.00 scf sf 600 5550 m gs 1 -1 sc (Diffserv node) col0 sh gr /Times-Bold ff 180.00 scf sf 600 1650 m gs 1 -1 sc (Intserv node) col0 sh gr /Times-Bold ff 180.00 scf sf 600 3975 m gs 1 -1 sc (traffic) col0 sh gr /Times-Bold ff 180.00 scf sf 600 3750 m gs 1 -1 sc (Diffserv) col0 sh gr /Times-Bold ff 180.00 scf sf 600 4200 m gs 1 -1 sc (conditioner) col0 sh gr /Times-Bold ff 180.00 scf sf 600 8025 m gs 1 -1 sc (traffic control) col0 sh gr % Polyline gs clippath 3480 1545 m 3600 1575 l 3480 1605 l 3615 1605 l 3615 1545 l cp clip n 3300 1575 m 3600 1575 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 3480 1545 m 3600 1575 l 3480 1605 l 3480 1575 l 3480 1545 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 3480 1695 m 3600 1725 l 3480 1755 l 3615 1755 l 3615 1695 l cp clip n 3300 1725 m 3600 1725 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 3480 1695 m 3600 1725 l 3480 1755 l 3480 1725 l 3480 1695 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 3480 1395 m 3600 1425 l 3480 1455 l 3615 1455 l 3615 1395 l cp clip n 3300 1425 m 3600 1425 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 3480 1395 m 3600 1425 l 3480 1455 l 3480 1425 l 3480 1395 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 2280 3870 m 2400 3900 l 2280 3930 l 2415 3930 l 2415 3870 l cp clip n 2100 3900 m 2400 3900 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 2280 3870 m 2400 3900 l 2280 3930 l 2280 3900 l 2280 3870 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 3480 3045 m 3600 3075 l 3480 3105 l 3615 3105 l 3615 3045 l cp clip n 2700 3675 m 2700 3075 l 3600 3075 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 3480 3045 m 3600 3075 l 3480 3105 l 3480 3075 l 3480 3045 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5805 5445 m 5925 5475 l 5805 5505 l 5940 5505 l 5940 5445 l cp clip n 3300 5475 m 5925 5475 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5805 5445 m 5925 5475 l 5805 5505 l 5805 5475 l 5805 5445 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5880 5595 m 6000 5625 l 5880 5655 l 6015 5655 l 6015 5595 l cp clip n 3300 5625 m 6000 5625 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5880 5595 m 6000 5625 l 5880 5655 l 5880 5625 l 5880 5595 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5730 5295 m 5850 5325 l 5730 5355 l 5865 5355 l 5865 5295 l cp clip n 3300 5325 m 5850 5325 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5730 5295 m 5850 5325 l 5730 5355 l 5730 5325 l 5730 5295 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5880 1545 m 6000 1575 l 5880 1605 l 6015 1605 l 6015 1545 l cp clip n 4500 1575 m 6000 1575 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5880 1545 m 6000 1575 l 5880 1605 l 5880 1575 l 5880 1545 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 7080 1545 m 7200 1575 l 7080 1605 l 7215 1605 l 7215 1545 l cp clip n 6900 1575 m 7200 1575 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 7080 1545 m 7200 1575 l 7080 1605 l 7080 1575 l 7080 1545 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5880 1395 m 6000 1425 l 5880 1455 l 6015 1455 l 6015 1395 l cp clip n 4500 1425 m 6000 1425 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5880 1395 m 6000 1425 l 5880 1455 l 5880 1425 l 5880 1395 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5880 1695 m 6000 1725 l 5880 1755 l 6015 1755 l 6015 1695 l cp clip n 4500 1725 m 6000 1725 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5880 1695 m 6000 1725 l 5880 1755 l 5880 1725 l 5880 1695 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5880 4020 m 6000 4050 l 5880 4080 l 6015 4080 l 6015 4020 l cp clip n 5700 4050 m 6000 4050 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5880 4020 m 6000 4050 l 5880 4080 l 5880 4050 l 5880 4020 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 4680 3870 m 4800 3900 l 4680 3930 l 4815 3930 l 4815 3870 l cp clip n 3300 3900 m 4800 3900 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 4680 3870 m 4800 3900 l 4680 3930 l 4680 3900 l 4680 3870 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 4680 3720 m 4800 3750 l 4680 3780 l 4815 3780 l 4815 3720 l cp clip n 3300 3750 m 4800 3750 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 4680 3720 m 4800 3750 l 4680 3780 l 4680 3750 l 4680 3720 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 4680 4020 m 4800 4050 l 4680 4080 l 4815 4080 l 4815 4020 l cp clip n 3300 4050 m 4800 4050 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 4680 4020 m 4800 4050 l 4680 4080 l 4680 4050 l 4680 4020 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 6330 3555 m 6300 3675 l 6270 3555 l 6270 3690 l 6330 3690 l cp clip n 4500 3375 m 6300 3375 l 6300 3675 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 6330 3555 m 6300 3675 l 6270 3555 l 6300 3555 l 6330 3555 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 6480 3555 m 6450 3675 l 6420 3555 l 6420 3690 l 6480 3690 l cp clip n 4500 3225 m 6450 3225 l 6450 3675 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 6480 3555 m 6450 3675 l 6420 3555 l 6450 3555 l 6480 3555 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 6630 3555 m 6600 3675 l 6570 3555 l 6570 3690 l 6630 3690 l cp clip n 4500 3075 m 6600 3075 l 6600 3675 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 6630 3555 m 6600 3675 l 6570 3555 l 6600 3555 l 6630 3555 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5130 3555 m 5100 3675 l 5070 3555 l 5070 3690 l 5130 3690 l cp clip n 5100 3375 m 5100 3675 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5130 3555 m 5100 3675 l 5070 3555 l 5100 3555 l 5130 3555 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5280 3555 m 5250 3675 l 5220 3555 l 5220 3690 l 5280 3690 l cp clip n 5250 3225 m 5250 3675 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5280 3555 m 5250 3675 l 5220 3555 l 5250 3555 l 5280 3555 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5430 3555 m 5400 3675 l 5370 3555 l 5370 3690 l 5430 3690 l cp clip n 5400 3075 m 5400 3675 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5430 3555 m 5400 3675 l 5370 3555 l 5400 3555 l 5430 3555 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5880 3720 m 6000 3750 l 5880 3780 l 6015 3780 l 6015 3720 l cp clip n 5700 3750 m 6000 3750 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5880 3720 m 6000 3750 l 5880 3780 l 5880 3750 l 5880 3720 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5880 3870 m 6000 3900 l 5880 3930 l 6015 3930 l 6015 3870 l cp clip n 5700 3900 m 6000 3900 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5880 3870 m 6000 3900 l 5880 3930 l 5880 3900 l 5880 3870 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 7080 3870 m 7200 3900 l 7080 3930 l 7215 3930 l 7215 3870 l cp clip n 6900 3900 m 7200 3900 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 7080 3870 m 7200 3900 l 7080 3930 l 7080 3900 l 7080 3870 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 3480 3195 m 3600 3225 l 3480 3255 l 3615 3255 l 3615 3195 l cp clip n 2850 3675 m 2850 3225 l 3600 3225 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 3480 3195 m 3600 3225 l 3480 3255 l 3480 3225 l 3480 3195 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 3480 3345 m 3600 3375 l 3480 3405 l 3615 3405 l 3615 3345 l cp clip n 3000 3675 m 3000 3375 l 3600 3375 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 3480 3345 m 3600 3375 l 3480 3405 l 3480 3375 l 3480 3345 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline n 3525 1800 m 3825 2175 l gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 4425 2175 m 4950 1800 l gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 5775 4125 m 5550 4575 l gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 4125 4125 m 4275 4500 l gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 4425 4800 m 4350 5250 l gs col0 s gr % Polyline gs clippath 7080 7845 m 7200 7875 l 7080 7905 l 7215 7905 l 7215 7845 l cp clip n 6900 7875 m 7200 7875 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 7080 7845 m 7200 7875 l 7080 7905 l 7080 7875 l 7080 7845 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s /Times-Roman ff 180.00 scf sf 4050 1650 m gs 1 -1 sc (Policing) dup sw pop 2 div neg 0 rm col0 sh gr /Times-Roman ff 180.00 scf sf 2850 3975 m gs 1 -1 sc (Classifier) dup sw pop 2 div neg 0 rm col0 sh gr /Times-Roman ff 180.00 scf sf 6450 1575 m gs 1 -1 sc (Packet) dup sw pop 2 div neg 0 rm col0 sh gr /Times-Roman ff 180.00 scf sf 6450 1725 m gs 1 -1 sc (scheduler) dup sw pop 2 div neg 0 rm col0 sh gr /Times-Roman ff 180.00 scf sf 6450 4050 m gs 1 -1 sc (dropper) dup sw pop 2 div neg 0 rm col0 sh gr /Times-Roman ff 180.00 scf sf 5250 3975 m gs 1 -1 sc (Marker) dup sw pop 2 div neg 0 rm col0 sh gr /Times-Roman ff 180.00 scf sf 6450 3900 m gs 1 -1 sc (Shaper/) dup sw pop 2 div neg 0 rm col0 sh gr /Times-Roman ff 180.00 scf sf 4050 3300 m gs 1 -1 sc (Meter) dup sw pop 2 div neg 0 rm col0 sh gr /Times-Roman ff 180.00 scf sf 4125 2325 m gs 1 -1 sc (Flows) dup sw pop 2 div neg 0 rm col0 sh gr /Times-Roman ff 180.00 scf sf 4650 4725 m gs 1 -1 sc (\(Behaviour\) aggregates) dup sw pop 2 div neg 0 rm col0 sh gr /Times-Bold ff 180.00 scf sf 4050 900 m gs 1 -1 sc (Metering) dup sw pop 2 div neg 0 rm col0 sh gr /Times-Bold ff 180.00 scf sf 5850 900 m gs 1 -1 sc (Queuing/scheduling) dup sw pop 2 div neg 0 rm col0 sh gr /Times-Roman ff 180.00 scf sf 2700 8625 m gs 1 -1 sc (Queuing discipline) col0 sh gr /Times-Bold ff 180.00 scf sf 2850 900 m gs 1 -1 sc (Classification) dup sw pop 2 div neg 0 rm col0 sh gr $F2psEnd rs %%EndDocument @endspecial -19 4929 a Ff(Figure)27 b(5:)36 b(Relation)28 b(of)f(elemen)n(ts)h(of)f(the)h(in)n(tserv)f(and)g(di\013serv)h(arc)n 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